Which of the following is NOT typically associated with improving data integrity?

Improving data integrity is crucial in maintaining the accuracy and consistency of data throughout its lifecycle. Hash functions play a vital role in verifying that data has not been altered by creating a unique digital representation of the data. Input validation helps ensure that the data entered into a system is accurate and meets specified criteria, thereby preventing corrupt or malicious inputs that could compromise data integrity. Centralized controls facilitate a uniform approach to managing and protecting data, ensuring that all modifications are monitored and recorded.

User training, while important for overall security awareness and best practices, does not directly contribute to the technical mechanisms that enforce data integrity. It primarily focuses on educating individuals about policies and procedures rather than implementing specific systems or processes that protect data integrity. Thus, while user training can enhance security in a broader sense, it is not traditionally associated with the technical aspects of ensuring data integrity compared to the other options listed.